What Is the Fairness Doctrine (FCC History Policies)

The fairness doctrine was a Federal Communications Commission (FCC) policy. The FCC believed that broadcast licenses (required for both radio and terrestrial TV stations) were a form of public trust and, as such, licensees should provide balanced and fair coverage of controversial issues. The policy was a casualty of Reagan Administration deregulation.The Fairness Doctrine should not be confused with the Equal Time Rule. History This 1949 policy was an artifact of the predecessor organization to the FCC, the Federal Radio Commission.  The FRC developed the policy in response to the growth of radio (unlimited demand for a finite spectrum lead to government licensing of radio spectrum). The FCC believed that broadcast licenses (required for both radio and terrestrial TV stations) were a form of public trust and, as such, licensees should provide balanced and fair coverage of controversial issues. The public interest justification for the fairness doctrine is outlined in Section 315 of the Communications Act of 1937 (amended in 1959). The law required broadcasters to provide equal opportunity to all legally qualified political candidates for any office if they had allowed any person running in that office to use the station. However, this equal opportunity offering did not (and does not) extend to news programs, interviews and documentaries. Supreme Court Affirms Policy In 1969, the U.S. Supreme Court unanimously (8-0) ruled that Red Lion Broadcasting Co. (of Red Lion, PA) had violated the fairness doctrine. Red Lions radio station, WGCB, aired a program that attacked an author and journalist, Fred J. Cook. Cook requested equal time but was refused; the FCC supported his claim because the agency viewed the WGCB program as a personal attack. The broadcaster appealed; the Supreme Court ruled for the plaintiff, Cook. In that ruling, the Court position the First Amendment as being paramount, but not to the broadcaster but to the viewing and listening public. Justice Byron White, writing for the Majority: The Federal Communications Commission has for many years imposed on radio and television broadcasters the requirement that discussion of public issues be presented on broadcast stations, and that each side of those issues must be given fair coverage. This is known as the fairness doctrine, which originated very early in the history of broadcasting and has maintained its present outlines for some time. It is an obligation whose content has been defined in a long series of FCC rulings in particular cases, and which is distinct from the statutory [370] requirement of 315 of the Communications Act [note 1] that equal time be allotted all qualified candidates for public office...On November 27, 1964, WGCB carried a 15-minute broadcast by the Reverend Billy James Hargis as part of a Christian Crusade series. A book by Fred J. Cook entitled Goldwater - Extremist on the Right was discussed by Hargis, who said that Cook had been fired by a newspaper for making false charges against city offic ials; that Cook had then worked for a Communist-affiliated publication; that he had defended Alger Hiss and attacked J. Edgar Hoover and the Central Intelligence Agency; and that he had now written a book to smear and destroy Barry Goldwater....In view of the scarcity of broadcast frequencies, the Governments role in allocating those frequencies, and the legitimate claims of those unable without governmental assistance to gain access to those frequencies for expression of their views, we hold the regulations and [401] ruling at issue here are both authorized by statute and constitutional.[note 28] The judgment of the Court of Appeals in Red Lion is affirmed and that in RTNDA reversed and the causes remanded for proceedings consistent with this opinion.Red Lion Broadcasting Co. v. Federal Communications Commission, 395 U.S. 367 (1969) As an aside, part of the ruling could be construed as justifying Congressional or FCC intervention in the market to limit monopolization, although the ruling is addressing the abridgment of freedom: It is the purpose of the First Amendment to preserve an uninhibited marketplace of ideas in which truth will ultimately prevail, rather than to countenance monopolization of that market, whether it be by the government itself or a private licensee. It is the right of the public to receive suitable access to social, political, esthetic, moral and other ideas and experiences which is crucial here. That right may not constitutionally be abridged either by Congress or by the FCC. Supreme Court Looks AgainOnly five years later, the Court (somewhat) reversed itself. In 1974, SCOTU Chief Justice Warren Burger (writing for a unanimous court in Miami Herald Publishing Co. v. Tornillo, 418 U.S. 241) said that in the case of newspapers, a government right of reply requirement inescapably dampens the vigor and limits the variety of public debate. In this case, Florida law had required newspapers to provide a form of equal access when a paper endorsed a political candidate in an editorial. There are clear differences in the two cases, beyond the simple matter than radio stations are granted government licenses and newspapers are not. The Florida statute (1913) was far more prospective than the FCC policy. From the Court decision. However, both decisions discuss the relative scarcity of news outlets. Florida Statute 104.38 (1973) [is] a right of reply statute which provides that if a candidate for nomination or election is assailed regarding his personal character or official record by any newspaper, the candidate has the right to demand that the newspaper print, free of cost to the candidate, any reply the candidate may make to the newspapers charges. The reply must appear in as conspicuous a place and in the same kind of type as the charges which prompted the reply, provided it does not take up more space than the charges. Failure to comply with the statute constitutes a first-degree misdemeanor...Even if a newspaper would face no additional costs to comply with a compulsory access law and would not be forced to forgo publication of news or opinion by the inclusion of a reply, the Florida statute fails to clear the barriers of the First Amendment because of its intrusion into the function of editors. A newspaper is more than a passive receptacle or conduit for news, comment, an d advertising.[note 24] The choice of material to go into a newspaper, and the decisions made as to limitations on the size and content of the paper, and treatment of public issues and public officials - whether fair or unfair - constitute the exercise of editorial control and judgment. It has yet to be demonstrated how governmental regulation of this crucial process can be exercised consistent with First Amendment guarantees of a free press as they have evolved to this time. Accordingly, the judgment of the Supreme Court of Florida is reversed. Key CaseIn 1982, Meredith Corp (WTVH in Syracuse, NY) ran a series of editorials endorsing the Nine Mile II nuclear power plant. Syracuse Peace Council filed a fairness doctrine complaint with the FCC, asserting that WTVH had failed to give viewers conflicting perspectives on the plant and had thereby violated the second of the fairness doctrines two requirements. The FCC agreed; Meredith filed for reconsideration, arguing that the fairness doctrine was unconstitutional. Before ruling on the appeal, in 1985 the FCC, under Chair Mark Fowler, published a Fairness Report. This report declared that the fairness doctrine was having a chilling effect on speech and thus could be a violation of the First Amendment. Moreover, the report asserted that scarcity was no longer an issue because of cable television. Fowler was a former broadcast industry attorney who argued that television stations have no public interest role. Instead, he believed: The perception of broadcasters as community trustees should be replaced by a view of broadcasters as marketplace participants. Almost concurrently, in Telecommunications Research Action Center (TRAC) v. FCC (801 F.2d 501, 1986) the D.C. district court ruled that the Fairness Doctrine was not codified as part of the 1959 Amendment to the 1937 Communications Act. Instead, Justices Robert Bork and Antonin Scalia ruled that the doctrine was not mandated by statute. FCC Repeals RuleIn 1987, the FCC repealed the Fairness Doctrine, with the exception of the personal attack and political editorializing rules. In 1989, the DC District Court made the final ruling in Syracuse Peace Council v FCC. The ruling quoted the Fairness Report and concluded that the Fairness Doctrine was not in the public interest: On the basis of the voluminous factual record compiled in this proceeding, our experience in administering the doctrine and our general expertise in broadcast regulation, we no longer believe that the fairness doctrine, as a matter of policy, serves the public interest...We conclude that the FCCs decision that the fairness doctrine no longer served the public interest was neither arbitrary, capricious nor an abuse of discretion, and are convinced that it would have acted on that finding to terminate the doctrine even in the absence of its belief that the doctrine was no longer constitutional. Accordingly we uphold the Commission without reaching the constitutional issues. Congress IneffectiveIn June 1987, Congress had attempted to codify the Fairness Doctrine, but the bill was vetoed by President Reagan. In 1991, President George H.W. Bush followed suit with another veto. In the 109th Congress (2005-2007), Rep. Maurice Hinchey (D-NY) introduced H.R. 3302, also known as the Media Ownership Reform Act of 2005 or MORA, to to restore the Fairness Doctrine. Although the bill had 16 co-sponsors, it went no where.

Bitcoins Undeniable Impact On Online Casino - 1932 Words

Blog 5 – Bitcoin’s undeniable impact on online casino gaming There is arguably no other industry in the world that has grown at a faster rate than the online casino industry. From small and somewhat unsteady foundations, the industry has flourished, so much so that you can’t move for seeing online casino advertising and marketing in 2015. As the industry revenues, profits, and payouts continue to grow, gross winnings topped out at â‚ ¬28.24 billion in 2014, so does the industry’s level of innovation. Part of this expansion has come through the introduction of a brand new cryptocurrency. Bitcoin has now become a key factor within various online casinos and is clearly having an undeniable impact on the field. Meeting Consumer Needs No matter where you look in the world, the impact of online casino industry is plain to see. While this the case, the online casino industry has had issues with regards to currency, with plenty of controversies occurring due to such. Considering the virtual element of the online casino industry, many consumers have long since backed the introduction of a true virtual currency to support the industry. Bitcoin has proven to be that very currency, with many online casinos already adopting it. Major names like Coin Palace Casino, Omni Slots Casino, BitStarz, and Jubise Casino openly accept the currency with more names soon to follow. Early Days In all seriousness, while many are adopting the cryptocurrency, it must be said that the integration of the

Poverty and Homelessness in the United States Free Essays

string(79) " will be an explored and better understood reality that all Americans witness\." Poverty and Homelessness in the United States Poverty in America is a subject that though everybody recognizes is existent, most do not pay attention to very often. In 2010 the poverty line for a family of four was $22,314. 00 and 15. We will write a custom essay sample on Poverty and Homelessness in the United States or any similar topic only for you Order Now 1% of Americans were living off of less than that (Tavernise, 2011). While 15. 1% is a high number to begin with, the truth is that many more people are living on the verge of homelessness. Countless families are split up every night with children going to a friend’s house or an extended family member’s house to ensure that everyone has somewhere to sleep. These people are called the â€Å"hidden homeless† by the Charlotte Observer (Whitesides, 2011). Even more people are either living in tent cities or in their cars all around the United States. The events that lead to homelessness range from drug abuse to being laid off from a career because of a poor economy; but sadly the former makes it seem as if everyone who is homeless is in their situation because of their own faults. Many people who are approached by someone who is homeless or sees them panhandling for money hesitate to offer money because of the discourse that all homeless people are alcoholics and drug abusers. Unfortunately, the truth is that â€Å"many adults panhandle on corners for money to pay for a cheap motel room so that their children can have a warm place to sleep for the night† (Whitesides, 2011). Through this essay, the topic of homelessness and poverty in America will be explored by understanding some of the causes that have contributed to poverty throughout history and how the homeless are coping with their situation. Hundreds of people all around the city of Seattle, Washington are homeless or living in their cars. In Ballard alone, there are an estimated 150 people living in their cars (Thompson, 2011). A new program in January is to begin, opening up church parking lots in Ballard for up to five cars to spend the night somewhere safe. All who want to spend the night in the parking lots must apply and be screened which is a task that the state and city combined granted $30,000 towards (Thompson, 2011). So far, Redeemer’s Lutheran Church has stepped up to host the homeless in cars decided by a unanimous decision in September (Thompson, 2011). While people all across the United States are visibly poor, like those who are living in their cars, many others are suffering just as well with the stress of not knowing whether or not they ill have a roof over their head at night. Many of these people are teenagers who either do not have parents who can support them, are too old for foster care, have mental-health issues, or have been evicted from their homes (Whitesides, 2011). These teenagers are ones who go bounce from friend to friend sleeping at their houses every night because the y have no other place to go. The homeless problem is one that is growing worse and worse as the years go on. In 2010 46. 2 million people were living below the poverty line which is the highest number in the past 52 years (Tavernise, 2011). Economists say that joblessness is the main cause of poverty in America (Tavernise, 2011). 48 million people between the ages of 18 and 64 did not work even one week of the whole year, which is up three million from 2009 (Tavernise, 2011). While maintaining a job and progressing through a company is hard enough with a college degree, full-time male workers with no college degrees on average have made no progress (Tavernise, 2011). Of the 46. 2 million Americans living below the poverty line, 20. 5 million are surviving off of less than half of the $22,314. 0 poverty line. To save money, many Americans are cutting as many costs as they can in their daily lives. One of these costs, unfortunately, is insurance. The number of uninsured Americans increased by 900,000 to 49. 9 million people (Tavernise, 2011). In Gaston County, North Carolina community meetings are held focused on finding ways to help those who are having a hard time financially. At these meetings suggestions are made such as, donating houses to be used by families, becoming a foster parent, and if in the position to, create jobs in the community. While reading about homelessness through the media, one must be sure to realize that even the articles written include discourses and also that they omit details in order to keep the attention of the readers. In Seattle the program that is to allow people living in cars to spend the night in church parking lots seems like a great idea that will help out dozens of people. Something to consider though, is the fact that many people are not willing to open up a safe haven, such as a church, to potentially dangerous. Even though many people try to go through their days without judging people, it is inevitable to have discourses towards people. In America people grow up hearing stories about how if you give a homeless person money that he or she will most likely use it on beer or drugs. These discourses need to be eliminated in order for the country’s problem to be solved. The United States is known as a country full of opportunities, a place where anyone can succeed but behind that visage is a reality that is becoming worse and worse as time goes on. While people go throughout their days pretending that everyone lives a comfortable life in a warm home, the truth is that at any given moment there are thousands of Americans who are homeless. Problems that have been existent since the beginning of the United States have contributed to this ever-growing problem that is prominent now. Through a political economic analysis of the history of the United States, homelessness will be an explored and better understood reality that all Americans witness. You read "Poverty and Homelessness in the United States" in category "Papers" Prior to World War II, the United States was going through the Great Depression in which the economy crashed leaving millions without jobs. The start of World War II created many jobs and brought the country out of the depression. Later, the Vietnam War and the Cold War took a toll on the United States economy. Because the United States had to spend so much money on these wars, the country printed more money than they had gold to back it up. To solve the issue, President Richard Nixon removed the United States off of the gold standard, dropping the value of the US dollar. The effects of Nixon’s decision were increases of oil prices by 400% by Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries and stagflation. During IDL 3, the United States increased interest rates to counter inflation which caused extreme debt in developing nations. While taking the United States economy was improving from the removal of the gold standard, there was still a problem of distribution of wealth within the country. Since the 1920s the top 1% of wealth holders in the United States held 30% of the total household sector wealth, leaving the bottom 99% with only 70% (Keister Moller, 2000). Through the years the division of wealth distribution only grew wider. In 1989 the top 1% held 38. 9% of the total household wealth. The division between the top 1% of wealth holders in the United States and everyone else is so drastic that although the GDP per capita in 2010 was $47,184 it does not accurately portray the mass majority of individuals who live with far less money than that in 2010 (GDP per capita (current US$), 2010). When separated into five sections, the top quintile consists of about 85% of the total wealth and 50% of the total family income of the country (Keister Moller, 2000). Another contributor to homelessness in the United States, along with uneven distribution of wealth, is the outsourcing of American Jobs overseas. Between 2000 and 2004 more than 2. 5 million American jobs were lost due to outsourcing jobs to India (Chithelen, 2004). No longer are only blue-collar, manual labor jobs being shipped off to other countries, but also white-collar and professional jobs. This movement of jobs has left many Americans unemployed and without many options. These groups of people, who may have once been part of the top 1% of the country, are now in the bottom with no source of income. The corporate businesses outsourcing are doing so because they know that in countries such as India workers can be found for much cheaper than those in the United States. Cutting losses and raising profit are the benefits that top executives look towards as they will use the saved money as larger bonuses for themselves (Chithelen, 2004). The jobs that international employees are taking from Americans are in the IT field and many workers, especially from India, are finding themselves having to move back home because the jobs they have are being outsourced for cheaper labor (Chithelen, 2004). It is estimated that by 2014 approximately 3. 3 million American business service jobs will be outsourced. The result of outsourcing and the uneven wealth distribution are that many people are left without jobs and no way to pay for a home. In 1988 68,0000 children were homeless and 186,000 children were living at a friend’s or extended relative’s home (Lewit Baker, 1996). While those numbers are high, there is no doubt that 23 years later those numbers will be much higher. These economic factors and homelessness have much to do with inequality. Because the distribution of wealth is so great, it makes it extremely difficult for people on the bottom who are poor to get anywhere successful. People with money have power and the top executives of the big corporations have the power to take the jobs away from hard-working Americans to save a couple of dollars, which in the end will return to the executives, by outsourcing to countries overseas. Because the United States is a Global North county that is part of the OECD, it often times takes responsibility over Global South countries that do not have as many resources as opportunities. The United States has many large corporations that have the ability to create jobs overseas like how they are when they outsource jobs to places like India. Though it is worsening the situation in America, many of opportunities have opened up for people in Global South countries. Media often times discusses homelessness in America through a sympathetic viewpoint. In the articles used for this paper, a majority of the blame for people being homeless is pointed towards the poor job market rather than the laziness of the people stuck in the situation. Poverty in America is a problem that is not just one on the national level, but also locally. Cities such as Seattle have hundreds of homeless citizens who get walked past every day without anybody noticing. In today’s society seeing homeless people on the sidewalks and under underpasses is the sadly the norm. Those living in poverty and who are homeless get tagged with the discourse by many people that they are in their situation because of their own faults; that they are alcohol or drug abusers, are poor workers, or are lazy members of society who want to bum off everyone else who works for a living. The truth is, as showed through this paper, that many of those who are homeless are in their situation because they have lost their job to a wide array of reasons or because they were never able to find a job in the first place. As displayed through the political economic analysis, many jobs in the United States have been and will continue to be lost to workers in overseas countries such as India. In these other countries, large corporations are able to find workers for just a fraction of the cost of workers in America. To go along with the outsourcing of jobs, the distribution of wealth in the United States is extremely uneven. With the top 1% of wealth holders in the United States held 30% of the total household sector wealth; the middle and lower-class citizens have very little power. The top 1% just so happen to be the people who have say in how large corporations are going to run and whether or not they want cheap, unethical, sweatshop labor overseas. The amount of poverty and homelessness that is existent in the United States is both overwhelming and extremely disappointing. Many families who thought of themselves as well-off very quickly had their lives flipped around during the past few years as the economy took a turn for the worst. Because of the poor economy, many employers look for ways to cut costs and one of their solutions is to fire employees. In 2004 more than 2. 5 million jobs were sent overseas and taken from American workers. The sudden loss of work has left more Americans in poverty than there have been in 52 years. Through the analysis of this issue, hopefully the issue of homelessness will be one that is less ignored on a daily basis. Hopefully in the upcoming years more people will step up to help in the same way that Redeemer’s Lutheran Church has chosen to open their parking lot to those who live in their cars. Bibliography GDP per capita (current US$). (2010). Retrieved 12 6, 2011, from The World Bank: http://data. worldbank. org/indicator/NY. GDP. PCAP. CD Chithelen, I. (2004). Outsourcing to India: Causes, Reaction and Prospects. Economic and Political Weekly, 1022-1024. Keister, L. A. , Moller, S. (2000). Wealth Inequality in the United States. Annual Review of Sociology, 63-81. Lewit, E. M. , Baker, L. S. (1996). Homeless Families and Children. The Future of Children, 146-158. Tavernise, S. (2011, 09 13). Soaring Povert Casts Spotlight on ‘Lost Decade’. Retrieved 12 08, 2011, from The New York Times: http://www. nytimes. com/2011/09/14/us/14census. html? pagewanted=all Thompson, L. (2011, 11 24). Seattle may Help Homless Car Campers. Retrieved 12 05, 2011, from The Seattle Times: http://seattletimes. nwsource. com/html/localnews/2016849799_carcamping25m. html Whitesides, S. (2011, 11 07). ‘Hidden Homeless’ are Growing in Gaston County. Retrieved 12 05, 2011, from Charlotte Observer: http://www. charlotteobserver. com/2011/11/27/2797440/hidden-homeless-are-growing-in. html How to cite Poverty and Homelessness in the United States, Papers

Mark Twains The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is a novel about a young boys coming of age in Missouri of the mid

Mark Twains The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is a novel about a young boys coming of age in Missouri of the mid-1800s Essay Mark Twains The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is a novel about a young boys coming of age in Missouri of the mid-1800s. The main character, Huckleberry Finn, spends much time in the novel floating down the Mississippi River on a raft with a runaway slave named Jim. Before he does so, however, Huck spends some time in the fictional town of St. Petersburg where a number of people attempt to influence him. Before the novel begins, Huck Finn has led a life of absolute freedom. His drunken and often missing father has never paid much attention to him; his mother is dead and so, when the novel begins, Huck is not used to following any rules. The books opening finds Huck living with the Widow Douglas and her sister, Miss Watson. Both women are fairly old and are really somewhat incapable of raising a rebellious boy like Huck Finn. Nevertheless, they attempt to make Huck into what they believe will be a better boy. Specifically, they attempt, as Huck says, to civilize him. This process includes making Huck go to school, teaching him various religious facts, and making him act in a way that the women find socially acceptable. Huck, who has never had to follow many rules in his life, finds the demands the women place upon him constraining and the life with them lonely. As a result, soon after he first moves in with them, he runs away. He soon comes back, but, even though he becomes somewhat comfortable with his new life as the months go by, Huck never really enjoys the life of manners, religion, and education that the Widow and her sister impose upon him. Huck believes he will find some freedom with Tom Sawyer. Tom is a boy of Hucks age who promises Huck and other boys of the town a life of adventure. Huck is eager to join Tom Sawyers Gang because he feels that doing so will allow him to escape the somewhat boring life he leads with the Widow Douglas. Unfortunately, such an escape does not occur. Tom Sawyer promises much but none of his promises comes to pass. Huck finds out too late that Toms adventures are imaginary, that raiding a caravan of A-rabs really means terrorizing young children on a Sunday school picnic, that stolen joolry is nothing more than turnips or rocks. Huck is disappointed that the adventures Tom promises are not real and so, along with the other members, he resigns from the gang. Another person who tries to get Huckleberry Finn to change is Pap, Hucks father. Pap is one of the most astonishing figures in all of American literature. He is completely antisocial and wishes to undo all of the civilizing effects that the Widow and Miss Watson have attempted to instill in Huck. Pap is a mess: he is unshaven; his hair is uncut and hangs like vines in front of his face; his skin, Huck says, Is white like a fishs belly or like a tree toads. Paps savage appearance reflects his feelings as he demands that Huck quit school, stop reading, and avoid church. Huck is able to stay away from Pap for a while, but Pap kidnaps Huck three or four months after Huck starts to live with the Widow and takes him to a lonely cabin deep in the Missouri woods. Here, Huck enjoys, once again, the freedom that he had prior to the beginning of the book. He can smoke, laze around, swear, and, in general, do what he wants to do. However, as he did with the Widow and with Tom, Huck begins to become dissatisfied with this life. Pap is too handy with the hickory and Huck soon realizes that he will have to escape from the cabin if he wishes to remain alive. As a result of his concern, Huck makes it appear as if he is killed in the cabin while Pap is away, and leaves to go to Jackson Island a remote island in the Mississippi River. It is after he leaves his fathers cabin that Huck joins yet another important influence in his life: Miss Watsons slave, Jim. Prior to Hucks leaving, Jim has been a minor character in the novel he has been shown being fooled by Tom Sawyer and telling Hucks fortune. Huck finds Jim on Jacksons Island because the slave has run away. He has overheard a conversation that he will soon be sold to a slave owner New Orleans. Soon, after joining Jim on Jacksons Island, Huck begins to realize that Jim has more talents and intelligence than Huck has been aware of. Jim knows all kinds of signs about the future, peoples personalities, and weather forecasting. Huck finds this kind of information necessary as he and Jim drift down the Mississippi on a raft. Huck feels a comfort with Jim that he has not felt with the other major characters in the novel. With Jim, Huck can enjoy the best aspects of his earlier influences. As does the Widow, Jim allows Huck security, but Jim is not as confining as the Widow. Like Tom Sawyer, Jim is intelligent but his intelligence is not as intimidating or as imaginary as is Toms. Similar to Pap, Jim allows Huck freedom, but he does it in a loving, rather than an uncaring, fashion. Thus, early, in their relationship on Jacksons Island, Huck says to Jim, This is nice. I wouldnt want to be nowhere else but here. This feeling is in marked contrast with Hucks feelings concerning other people in the early part of the novel where he always is uncomfortable and wishes to leave them. At the conclusion of chapter 11 in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Huck and Jim are forced to leave Jacksons Island because Huck discovers that people are looking for the runaway slave. Prior to leaving, Huck tells Jim, Theyre after us. Clearly, the people are after Jim, but Huck has already identified with Jim and has begun to care for him. This stated empathy shows that the two outcasts will have a successful and rewarding friendship as they drift down the river as the novel continues. Twain, Mark Mark Twain and racism almost always appear together in critics articles yet is racism really the problem? There is a major argument among literary critics whether Huckleberry Finn, by Mark Twain, is or is not a racist novel. The question boils down to the depiction of Jim, the black slave, and the way Huck and other characters treat him. The use of the word nigger is also a point raised by some critics, who feel that Twain uses the word too much and too loosely. Mark Twain never presents Jim in a negative light. He does not show Jim as a drunkard, as a mean person, or as a cheat. This is in contrast to the way Hucks white father is depicted, whom Twain describes using all of the above characterizations and more. We see Jim as a good friend, a man devoted to his family and loyal to his companions. The Red Tree analysis essayIn his subtle manner, he creates not an apology for slavery but a challenge to it. Salwen, Peter The entire plot of The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is rooted on intolerance between different social groups. Without prejudice and intolerance The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn would not have any of the antagonism or intercourse that makes the recital interesting. The prejudice and intolerance found in the book are the characteristics that make The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn great. Wagennacht, Edward C. The author of The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is Samuel Langhorne Clemens, who is more commonly known by his pen name, Mark Twain. He was born in 1835 with the passing of Haleys comet, and died in1910 with the passing of Haleys comet. Clemens often used prejudice as a building block for the plots of his stories. Clemens even said, The very ink in which history is written is merely fluid prejudice. There are many other instances in which Clemens uses prejudice as a foundation for the entertainment of his writings such as this quote he said about foreigners in The Innocents Abroad, They spell it Vinci and pronounce it Vinchy; foreigners always spell better than they pronounce. Even in the opening paragraph of The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn Clemens states, Persons attempting to find a motive in this narrative will be prosecuted; persons attempting to find a moral in it will be banished; persons attempting to find a plot in it will be shot. Twain, MarkKaplan, Justin The World Book There were many groups that Clemens contrasted in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. The interaction of these different social gro ups is what makes up the main plot of the novel. For the objective of discussion they have been broken down into five main sets of antithetic parties: people with high levels of society and people with low levels of society, rednecks and scholarly, children and adults, men and women, and finally, the Sheperdsons and the Grangerfords. Whites and African Americans are the main two groups contrasted in the novel. Throughout the novel Clemens portrays Caucasians as a more educated group that is higher in society compared to the African Americans portrayed in the novel. The cardinal way that Clemens portrays African Americans as obsequious is through the colloquy that he assigns them. Their dialogue is composed of nothing but broken English. One example in the novel is this excerpt from the conversation between Jim the fugitive slave, and Huckleberry about why Jim ran away, where Jim declares, Well you see, it uz dis way. Ole missus-dats Miss Watson-she pecks on me all de time, en treats me pooty rough, but she awluz said she woudn sell me down to Orleans. Although this is the phonetic spelling of how some African Americans from the boondocks used to talk, Clemens only applied the argot to Blacks and not to Whites throughout the novel. There is not one sentence in the treatise spoken by an African American that is not comprised of broken English. But in spite of that, the broken English does add an entraining piece of culture to the milieu. Blair, Walter The second way Clemens differentiates people in the novel of different skin color. Blacks in the book are portrayed as stupid and uneducated. The most blatant example is where the African American character Jim is kept prisoner for weeks while he is a dupe in a childish game that Tom Sawyer and Huck Finn play with him. Clemens spends the last three chapters in the novel to tell the tale of how Tom Sawyer maliciously lets Jim, who known only unto Tom is really a free man, be kept prisoner in a shack while Tom torments Jim with musings about freedom and infests his living space with rats, snakes, and spiders. At the end of this chapter Tom even admits, Why, I wanted the adventure of ità ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ The next two groups Clemens contrasts are the rednecks and the scholarly. In the novel Clemens uses interaction between backwoods and more highly educated people as a vital part of the plot. The main usage of this mixing of two social groups is seen in the development of the two very entertaining characters simply called the duke and the king. These two characters are rednecks that pretend to be of a more scholarly background in order to cheat people along the banks of the Mississippi. In one instance the king and the duke fail miserably in trying to act more studiously when they perform a Shakespearean Revival. The duke totally slaughters the lines of Hamlet saying, To be, or not to be; that is the bare bodkin. That it makes calamity of so long life. For who farfel bear, till Birnam Wood do come to Dunshire, but that fear of something after death. Blair, Walter Thirdly Clemens contrasts adults and children. Clemens portrays adults as the conventional group in society, and children as the unconventional. In the story adults are not portrayed with much bias, but children are portrayed as more imaginative. The two main examples of this are when Huckleberry fakes his death, and when Tom and Huck help Jim escape from captivity. This extra imaginative aspect Clemens gives to the children of the story adds a lot of humor to the plot. Fourthly in the novel Clemens contrasts women and men. Women in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn are portrayed as frail, while men are portrayed as more outgoing. The foremost example of a frail woman character in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is Tom Sawyers Aunt Sally. One example was when Tom and Huck were collecting wildlife to live in the shack that Jim is being held prisoner in they accidentally let loose some snakes in Aunt Sallys house and Aunt Sally, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦would just lay that work down, and light out. The main reason that Clemens portrays women as less outgoing is because there are really only four minor women characters in the novel, while all major characters are men. Lastly Clemens contrasts two families engaged in a feud. The names of the two families are the Sheperdsons and the Grangerfords. The ironic thing is that, other than their names, the two factions are totally similar and even attend the same church. Blair, Walter This intolerance augments a major part to the plot because it serves as the basis for one of the escapades Huck and Jim get involved in on their trip down the Mississippi. In conclusion the entire plot of The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is rooted on intolerance between different social groups. Without prejudice and intolerance The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn would not have any of the antagonism and intercourse that makes the novel interesting. Therefore making it not a racist novel, but historically accurate tail of life at that time. Mark Twain is innocent of all wrongdoing.